Luisa Ferraro (Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II)
Abstract
This article examines the educational potential of interactive storytelling, a hybrid form that integrates elements of cinema and video games, which blends emotional engagement with decision-making agency. This study, based on experiments and cases related to the effects of violent games on players, demonstrates how interactive storytelling can foster critical thinking, moral reflection, and self-assessment by allowing users to directly influence the story’s progression and engage in intentional reflection. This approach creates a learning environment like situated learning, where participants are encouraged to assume perceived responsibilities and face ethical dilemmas in a secure setting. This review underscores that, when developed thoughtfully with a clear ethical framework to prevent negative outcomes such as playful dissociation and to enhance the prosocial benefits, interactive storytelling can serve as a genuine ethical laboratory for the 21st century—one that encourages responsibility, awareness, and moral development.
1. A Hybrid Medium
Interactive storytelling occupies the intersection between cinema and video games, drawing essential features from both to form a compelling hybrid medium. It combines the passive yet immersive qualities of film with the agency and choice found in video games, which often associate the ability to act with moral detachment and limited emotional involvement (‘I kill in the game because it’s just a game’). The potential of interactive storytelling lies in merging the pleasure of being told a story with the power to influence its ending. However, even years after the first experiments in interactivity, this hybrid form has not achieved the anticipated commercial success, due to its inherent ambivalence: it is not engaging enough for traditional gamers nor sufficiently linear to attract a broader audience. This study examines the underexplored educational potential of interactive storytelling as a framework for reimagining the medium. It allows viewers to experience the emotional involvement of a film while making choices that meaningfully affect the narrative, as in a video game. The key questions are: Does such emotional involvement lead viewers to maintain a state of playful dissociation? What effects might the creation of these hybrid products for educational purposes have on society? And how can we measure both the engagement and the consequences on the viewer-player’s experience?
2. Research Methodology
To address the research questions, this study adopts an exploratory theoretical-analytical design grounded in an interdisciplinary approach that integrates contributions from game studies, theories of interactivity, and the learning sciences. The aim is to examine how specific narrative configurations and mechanisms of agency inherent in interactive storytelling can support active learning processes. Within the educational domain, several scholars have highlighted the pedagogical potential of integrating storytelling and play to foster meaningful learning, critical reflection, and participation. Foundational contributions include Schön (1983) and Kolb (1984) on experiential and reflective learning, as well as McCall (2011, 2016) and Gee (2003, 2013) on the use of video games to promote active learning. The study is structured as a reasoned narrative review of the literature, aimed at identifying theoretical frameworks and empirical studies relevant to the concepts of agency, experiential learning, and participation. It also includes a critical discussion of both the affordances and possible limitations of video games, situating the analysis within the broader scientific debate on the relationship between interactivity, digital media, and learning processes. The analysis follows a comparative and thematic approach designed to relate narrative and interactive devices to established models of active learning. Given the breadth and heterogeneity of the field, the review is not intended to be exhaustive; rather, it prioritizes conceptually and empirically relevant contributions. This methodological choice, while acknowledging its selective scope, seeks to foster a dialogue between theoretical perspectives and significant empirical findings to assess their educational implications critically. While agency has been extensively examined within game studies and experiential learning has been widely theorized within the learning sciences, the relationship between narrative design, interactive agency, and pedagogical activation remains underexplored across disciplinary boundaries. This study addresses this gap by connecting narrative configurations and forms of agency in interactive storytelling with established models of active learning. Rather than treating interactivity as inherently educational, it examines the conditions under which narrative and interactive structures may function as pedagogically meaningful devices. Finally, a structural limitation of the study must be recognized: the field remains theoretically and empirically fragmented, characterized by heterogeneous approaches and evolving frameworks, which calls for further systematic investigation.
3. From Play to Reflection
In recent decades, the film and media landscape has undergone a significant transformation. The rise of interactive storytelling, a mode of expression that integrates elements of cinema and video games, has introduced a new kind of experience: we are no longer merely passive viewers but active participants in a story that responds to our choices. Unlike traditional cinema, which offers a fixed narrative, and traditional video games that emphasize goal-oriented action, interactive storytelling combines emotional engagement with decision-making agency. The viewer becomes, at least in part, co-creator, shaping both narrative unfolding and character development. This form of storytelling designates audiovisual narratives in which audiences directly influence the flow through choices that shape the narrative sequence, character development, or the ending. It departs decisively from the linear structure of traditional cinema, introducing branching paths and multiple endings. It elevates the viewer from passive observer to active participant in the narrative world. The line between narrator and viewer fades, creating a more dynamic and engaging experience (Admin, 2023). Given these innovations, cinematic storytelling is no longer merely a static object of interpretation but an immersive environment to be explored and customized according to individual preferences, effectively transforming it into an ergodic text (Ryan, 2001). This shift represents a major break in the relationship between viewers and films, and between video games and players. Interactive storytelling is inherently hybrid: it draws on cinematic elements such as aesthetics, staging, direction, music, and emotional depth, while also incorporating action, interactivity, and the player’s agency over narrative progression from video games. All these factors combine to create a new type of media—an integrated collaboration with significant social potential. Regarding the cinematic aspect, technological advances now provide tools that push viewer engagement to levels previously deemed impossible. Eco’s reflections from the 1960s on the potential of the ‘open work’ appear prophetic today. Eco described art as an artifact capable of acquiring unique forms of subjectivity because it can be reconfigured by each viewer in continually shifting ways. In this context, enjoying an interactive film may represent a culmination of this idea, as the viewer not only interprets the story but also actively shapes its development. Thus, interactive storytelling extends Eco’s concept beyond interpretative openness into narrative generativity, where the story remains incomplete until the viewer intervenes (Eco, 1962). Espen Aarseth, a game studies expert, addresses textual forms that demand active user participation. In his book, Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature, he defines ‘ergodic texts’ as those—digital or otherwise—that require active, structural involvement from the user to experience them fully (Aarseth, 1997). At the time of writing, Aarseth considered cinema a non-ergodic medium because traditional movies did not require viewers to make choices that alter narrative progression. Now, new forms of interactive storytelling are creating conditions where viewers begin to behave more like game players, while cinema itself gradually shifts toward an ergodic framework. Interactive films and series, especially on streaming platforms, are well-suited to this shift because they offer flexible viewing options and use remote controls or keyboards to enable viewers to influence the story. Netflix, for example, has become a testing ground for these innovations. Their first project, Puss in Book: Trapped in an Epic Tale (Burdine, Castuciano, 2017), introduced branching narratives in which viewers decide how the story progresses through a series of choices. Made for children, it uses a decision-tree format similar to gamebooks, thus making the viewing experience interactive and repeatable. Targeting children leverages their natural tendency to engage with animated characters and allows the format to be tested in fun and educational ways. Following this, Netflix released Buddy Thunderstruck: The Maybe Pile (Chaskin, 2017) later that year, a stop-motion special that expands choice-based storytelling into a set of seemingly endless narrative possibilities. Both titles show Netflix’s goal to combine innovative technology with engaging content and underscore the educational benefits of interactivity—encouraging critical thinking, decision-making skills, and active participation in audiovisual stories among young viewers.
At this point, it is necessary to clarify why the questions posed in this article regarding the educational potential of interactive storytelling concern interactive storytelling rather than video game: interactive storytelling can currently be understood as an emerging medium, which lacks a stable or standardized codification, and which therefore could be deliberately shaped toward educational aims rather than being confined to entertainment as occurred historically with cinema or video games. There are video games created purely for educational purposes, known as ‘serious games’ or ‘advergames’. Emerging in the 1980s, they are characterized as complete games featuring a plot, objectives, and predefined paths. These are genuine simulations in which the interactive component of gameplay is combined with representations of real-world scenarios. These games are developed based on pedagogical models and utilize experiential learning, where information and sensations experienced through interaction are strongly retained because they are encountered firsthand, thus facilitating behavioral changes through ‘learning by doing’ (Arnab et al., 2012). However, these games tend to be less engaging, since the choices prescribed for the player are often deprived of that immediacy and emotional intensity that distinguishes the video game medium, so everything is interpreted as a moral test, perceived as a simulation, and the educational intent thus loses effectiveness because the didactic intent becomes compromised. This happens because of an interpretive framework that favors dissociation and the emergence of cognitive responses such as ‘it’s just a game’ or ‘it’s just a simulation’ that drastically attenuate the moral weight of the actions taken and therefore the related educational or introspective potential (Hartmann, Vorderer, 2010). Interactive storytelling, by contrast, appears capable of overcoming this limitation: its hybrid nature, situated between cinema and video game, guarantees the construction of compelling stories in which to immerse oneself and complex choices, capable of both entertaining and educating. The purpose of an interactive narrative, designed in this way, is therefore distinct from that of a serious game, but at the same time, it does not constitute a form of ‘educational gamification’. At the core of the gamification phenomenon, in fact, lies the competitive element and the possibility of obtaining incentives or rewards, a completely absent element in interactive storytelling (Petruzzi, 2015). The purpose of interactive educational storytelling should not, in fact, be to function as a persuasive game (Bogost, 2007), directing users towards specific behavior or telling them whether their choices are right or wrong, but rather to stimulate critical thinking and reflection on the consequences of one’s choices. This is possible thanks to the pervasive yet precisely integrated presence of narrative elements: many video games are moving in the direction of inserting long cut-scenes to encourage the player’s immersion in the game and extend gameplay duration, emblematic, in this regard, the case of The Last Of Us Part II (Naughty Dog, 2020). Henry Jenkins defines cut-scenes as ‘micro-narratives’, comparing them to the famous Odessa Steps sequence in Eisenstein’s Battleship Potemkin (1925). In both, short visual fragments of high intensity — such as the woman with a wheelchair — generate a deep emotional impact, involving the viewer in the conflict represented. Eisenstein referred to these as ‘attractions’, elements capable of eliciting an immediate sensory response. Similarly, in modern video games, such micro-narratives produce memorable moments that, acting on multiple levels — visual, sensory, and narrative — amplify the player’s emotional experience. However, cut-scenes remain ancillary elements, often used as fillers, and therefore do not carry the same narrative weight as interactive sequences (Jenkins, 2004). In the case of interactive narrative, the narrative component is not a filler between gameplay segments; it is not simply an interval between choices, but is conceived as a compelling anchor, a fundamental element for the player’s awareness and deliberation when making choices that will have a specific weight on the evolution of the narrative and therefore in the hybrid viewing-gaming experience.
Interactive storytelling is not an extension of cinema or an ennoblement of video games. It is a third form, a hybrid that forces us to rethink the relationship between story, action, and involvement, and, as this article seeks to demonstrate, it may generate positive effects through its mode of experiential interaction. Most studies on media effects tend to focus exclusively on the assessment of potential negative outcomes – as exemplified, for instance, by the hypodermic needle theory (Carratalà, 2019) – so the ability of the media to exert a positive influence in the short and long term remains largely unexplored or supported only by empirical evidence. Starting from the evaluation of the negative aspects of the relationship between users and media, it is possible to trace potential areas of investigation on any positive effects: meta-analyses show that both violence observed passively — as in movies or television (Anderson et al., 2017) — and interactive violence, in which the user performs violent actions, as in video games (Calvert et al., 2017) produce statistically significant effects, even of small magnitude. Empirical studies such as those conducted by Mary Beth Oliver and Arthur Raney, show that exposure to mediated violence, especially through environments in which one must both perpetrate violence and witness its consequences, can potentially influence perceptions and behaviors (Oliver, Raney, 2011). These aspects amplify their scope when placed in the context of interactivity, in which, instead of passively witnessing, as in the case of the movie, or innocently, as in the case of actions performed merely in response to game mechanics in video games, the user assumes a direct and intentional role in perpetrating such acts. Michael Wellenreiter, in his studies, has highlighted the intrinsically dynamic and co-authorial nature of media content, emphasizing how, when fruition occurs, both the user and the system co-construct, interpret, and interact with the content in ways that are unique to each individual (Wellenreiter, 2015).
As previously noted, most studies on media effects on viewers or players focus on negative aspects, such as the ability to influence behavior, reset critical skills, or encourage the emulation of reckless actions. Of considerable interest in the topic in question is the study Cyberpsychol Behavior and Social Networking, which showed that, in some cases, morally questionable behaviors performed within a video game environment can generate feelings of guilt in players, and therefore, have a positive outcome in the long term. In the experiment conducted by Matthew Grizzard and colleagues, a sample of 185 young adults was randomly assigned to different experimental conditions to assess the impact of morally transgressive in-game behaviors on personal moral sensitivity. Participants were asked to play a modified version of a first-person shooter, in which some took the role of an agent engaged in morally reprehensible actions, while others assumed the role of a United Nations peacekeeper with a contrasting ethical profile. A further control group instead carried out a task of mnemonic recall relating to episodes likely to induce a sense of guilt. At the end of the assigned activity, all subjects filled out a battery of questionnaires designed to measure their moral sensitivity according to the moral foundations model, evaluating dimensions such as care, equity, and compliance with norms. The data collected showed that taking on a morally incorrect virtual role elicited heightened feelings of guilt, which, in turn, were associated with increased responsiveness to the moral norms violated in the game. These results suggest that simulated moral transgression in videogame contexts can activate self-reflective emotional processes capable of enhancing individual moral awareness even in real-world contexts (Grizzard et al., 2014)
In relation to this last point, the aspects of what has been termed the ‘Macbeth effect’ are particularly significant; this term derives from Shakespeare’s tragedy of the same name and from Lady Macbeth’s obsessive act of repeatedly washing imaginary blood from her hands. The expression ‘Macbeth effect’ is used, therefore, in reference to the desire for physical purification after committing an immoral act, such as playing a game that requires enacting violent or heinous actions against other human beings. This principle, applied to video games, was tested in an experiment by Mario Gollwitzer and André Melzer. The authors had the participants play violent or non-violent video games and, immediately after, measured several effects: the degree of guilt experienced, the motivation to engage in cleansing behaviors (such as washing hands or preferring hygiene products over other rewards), and the tendency to enact prosocial or morally restorative actions in the period immediately following the experiment. The study showed that engaging in violent actions, even if virtual, can trigger internal processes of moral self-correction –such as physical purification, prosocial impulses – similar to those observed after a real immoral act (Gollwitzer, Melzer, 2012). Moral concern can therefore also be elicited by shifts in moral standards in a virtual environment (Klimmt et al., 2006). The case of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare II (Infinity Ward, 2022) and the No Russian mission is emblematic, in which players were required to choose whether to assume a passive or active role in a massacre of civilians at an airport. This mission, which has become one of the most controversial moments in the history of video games, sparked official debates and extensive discussion on online forums, where players displayed widely divergent reactions. Some players, for example, have complained of feeling a strong shock, discomfort, or guilt, whereas others interpreted the mission as a strong narrative choice, a tool capable of pushing the player to reflect on violence, obedience, and responsibility. James Sterling of Destructoid magazine and video game expert Laura Parker supported this position, seeing in No Russian the creation of a watershed for video games to take responsibility for discussing controversial topics such as terrorism, human suffering, and even a tool to elevate the artistic status attributed to video games (Senior, 2012). Beyond broader debates about the artistic status of video games, the fact that some players feel the need to talk about the online mission, to reflect on what they have done, or in contrast to perpetuate processes of ‘moral disengagement’ (Bandura, 1990) minimizing the massacre, indicates that No Russian it is not merely passive entertainment but functions as moral provocation. This principle was supported by Mohammad Alavi himself, game developer of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare II, stated in an interview with Matthew S. Burns: ‘In the sea of endless bullets you fire off at countless enemies without a moment’s hesitation or afterthought, the fact that I got the player to hesitate even for a split second and actually consider his actions before he pulled that trigger– that makes me feel very accomplished’ (Alavi, 2012).
Exposure to media content may exert a positive influence, and interactive series or films designed for educational purposes can shape attitudes and behaviors of the viewer-player. This is possible because virtual experiences, contrary to common assumptions, are neither ephemeral nor lacking in substance; rather, the interactions they generate enduring cognitive and emotional traces that transfer into the real world. The anthropological foundations of this idea can be traced to the work of psychiatrist Jacob Moreno, who demonstrated that dramatization and role-taking are effective educational tools that foster greater self-knowledge and self-awareness through the assumption of ‘the other than oneself’. According to the principles of Morenian psychodrama, ‘playing the role comes before the emergence of the self. The role does not emerge from the self, but the self emerges from the roles’ (Moreno, 1964). From this perspective, adopting another identity by impersonating a game character becomes an important instrument for exploration and identity development, as the roles we enact reveal aspects of who we are. This dynamic, already present in traditional video games or role-playing games where the user assumes the identity of an avatar, acquires additional significance when placed within an interactive narrative. Here, decision-making is embedded in a structured storyline that immerses the user in a deeper state of cognitive–emotional engagement and stimulates reflective and evaluative processes. The implications of ‘learning by doing’ are complemented by those of ‘learning by being’, which, according to Katherine Clinton (2006), extends the learning process beyond mere action, placing emotional engagement at the center as a constitutive element of educational practice, thus reinforcing the reflective and evaluative dimension highlighted in interactive narratives. Supporting the thesis that such content can stimulate the viewer-player’s critical thinking more intensely than film or traditional video games are the observations of Gene Youngblood, who argues that: ‘learning occurs when attention is focused […] interactivity is the best way to focus attention’ (Youngblood, 2001). Because interactivity requires a higher degree of involvement, the user becomes more deeply engaged in the narrative, which grants interactivity an additional pedagogical value (Ghislandi, 1995). Further supporting this educational dimension of interactive storytelling are the studies of Marie-Laure Ryan, who argues that such narrative contexts allow for the exploration of moral implications and otherwise repressed thoughts, thanks to the mediation of fictitious environments that she defines as ‘safe spaces’, precisely because they are simulated and not real. Rayan identifies one of the possible beneficial effects enabled by augmented reality (Ryan, 2001). The beneficial effects of immersion in virtual environments are central to several studies examining the effectiveness of embodied experiences on behavioral change (Ahn et al., 2014). Among the most accredited studies in this field are those addressing the mitigation of psychosocial disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (Foa et al., 2007) and phobias (Craske et al., 2008), in individuals who do not meet the criteria for clinical treatment. These studies show that desensitization to traumatic memories through controlled re-experiencing is essential for facilitating emotional processing of trauma and for fostering the self-regulated management of psychophysiological stress.
However, strong emotional engagement does not automatically translate into ethical responsibility. One may feel intense empathy for a character and, at the same time, make drastic choices without meaningful reflection. Why does this happen? The game-like context provides a form of moral suspension, a playful dissociation: events are perceived as mere fiction and therefore as lacking real consequences. Many choices are ambiguous, symmetrical, or poorly explained; the player does not always perceive their consequences. In the video game, mistakes do not matter; it is reversible. The ability to repeat, reload, or erase actions reduces the player’s perception of responsibility. This creates an unexpected paradox: the more immersed and involved we are, the freer we feel to make choices without moral weight. So how might the interactive storytelling experience be different? To what extent, then, can it assume a prosocial value, functioning as an effective cultural tool? To answer this question, it is necessary to compare how decisions are made in traditional games with how they are made in interactive series or films designed for education and reflection, rather than mere entertainment. What kind of decision-making occurs in an interactive narrative context? Research suggests that this is not a fully ‘real’ decision, but a hybrid act situated halfway between play and moral simulation. A key factor in decision-making dynamics is perceived responsibility. This is determined by several elements: the frame of reality, how realistic what I am seeing is, the perceived agency, how much I believe the choice I have to make weighs the narrative, the irreversibility of the same, and the time of reflection taken to undertake it. When one or more of these elements is missing, the decision loses its perceived significance for the viewer-player. Interactive storytelling is a unique pedagogical laboratory because it mobilizes episodic memory (‘I did…’), situated empathy (‘I not merely understand suffering, but I am implicated in it’), learning through error, and restructuring moral thinking (‘I seek a new way of acting to avoid the unpleasant situation’). The combination of filmic identification and videogame agency produces an experience akin to situated learning: knowledge becomes embodied and linked to an emotional context. However, this potential is not guaranteed. If choices are not perceived as morally relevant, the experience remains superficial and its impact minimal. It is a process that requires a special design, a correct combination of elements to avoid both playful dissociation and moral overload. How can the educational impact of an interactive narrative be assessed? A rigorous assessment of its effects requires a mixed-methods approach that integrates quantitative and qualitative measures. Quantitatively pre- and post-experience questionnaires should be arranged to assess any changes in participants with respect to three central dimensions: empathy, which could be measured through the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), the level of narrative engagement, and perceived responsibility in the choices made during the story. Behavioral data should also be gathered, such as decision time, voluntary scene repetitions, and tendencies toward moral or utilitarian choices. Qualitatively, tools should capture participants’ subjective experiences and interpretative processes. Guided interviews can elicit impressions, emotions, and personal reflections, while stimulated recall – showing participants scenes or choices previously made – allows for a more precise reconstruction of decision-making and emotional responses. David Jonassen defines learning as an active, intentional, cooperative, authentic, and co-constructive process (Jonassen et al., 2007). These characteristics are fully evident in interactive storytelling, which can therefore be considered a mindtool, a cognitive instrument that supports and enhances learners’ thinking. From this perspective, interactive storytelling can serve as a valuable teaching tool. For example, it enables engaging presentation of specific content and promotes active, participatory learning, rather than passive transmission, in line with the principles of media education outlined by Masterman (1985). A particularly notable example of this approach is Malinowski’s Lens (Hoffmann et al., 2025), an AI-native educational game that transforms Bronisław Malinowski’s ethnographic work into an interactive narrative. The game is designed for learning anthropology and has been shown to produce positive learning outcomes and high usability. Furthermore, expert anthropologists involved in the evaluation confirmed its pedagogical value and disciplinary rigor, noting in some cases the discovery of new aspects of Malinowski’s work as a result of the playful-narrative interaction.
4. Conclusion
Returning to the starting point and to one the initial questions, namely, what impact the creation of interactive storytelling products for educational purposes could have on society, we can say, based on what has emerged so far, that, if supported by deliberate design and ethical awareness, deep emotional engagement, perceived consequences, and a clear ethical framework, interactive series and films can have a significant prosocial impact. Branched choices can become effective tools for stimulating self-evaluation and ethical awareness, while the possibility of exploring different narrative outcomes allows moral dilemmas to be experienced in a safe environment. The construction of emotionally intense moments — such as guilt, empathy, or inner conflict — increases engagement, and the interactive structure transforms reflection into an active, experiential process rather than merely a contemplative one. Entertainment conceived in this way can activate the kind of deep elaboration that characterizes eudaimonic entertainment, as theorized by Oliver and Raney (2011), capable of entertaining while simultaneously functioning as an educational device. From the perspective of media education, interactive storytelling as a new educational system can be a valuable tool, helping learners understand the complex interrelationships among multiple factors, stimulating curiosity, and enhancing their ability to tackle complex problems. Real-life problems are rarely simple or linear; they require a multifaceted approach that considers multiple variables and their interconnections. In this sense, interactive storytelling serves as an ideal experiential training ground with significant pedagogical potential (Roth et al., 2025). To date, however, interactive storytelling remains a powerful yet fragile medium, and its educational and pedagogical implications are still largely unexplored. The future challenge for this young medium is to create works that do not merely allow users to ‘choose’, but that make them responsible for their choices and balance pedagogical objectives with the dynamic aspects of storytelling. Rising to this challenge represents an opportunity for pedagogy and for current and future professionals in the field to chart new paths and open new horizons. Only in this way can interactive storytelling become a true ethical laboratory for the 21st century.
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Authors’ Info
Luisa Ferraro
Subject Matter Expert in Film History, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II
luisaaferraro@gmail.com
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